• How to get out of addiction? How does it work? – opinion

    By Marta Koblańska, September 9, 2025, 13:15, Photo: addiction pills, Rigby40, Pixabay

    Some unverified tips to overcome addiction. The best approach is to avoid starting any addictive behaviors. Why? Because it may only exacerbate a feeling that is perceived as necessary to eliminate.

    There are several ways to quit an addictive substance, each with its own costs. One of the most common methods is simply to stop using the substance, whether it be smoking, alcohol, or drugs. However, this solution is not always easy. In the Western hemisphere, there are dedicated facilities designed to help people overcome their addictions. It’s important to note that addiction may stem from pain caused by people, experiences, or events in one’s life.

    Some of these solutions succeed, some do not. What is the key here? Rather unknown, as there is no strict rule to either predict or yield who is to get out of addiction. Experts admit that sometimes the one who is less addicted succeeds, sometimes the one with a virtually impossible addiction to cut off. The luck is also dependent on the kind of substance, environment, and support the patient feels, as well as the level of physical and intellectual activity. Sometimes doctors allow a change from one addictive substance to another, claiming that only this way can the damage to the patient’s health and the health of his/her family/environment be diminished.

    Paradox, but it is sometimes not good to undertake many trials to get out of addiction in the short term, particularly when they have not resulted in any progress, as that policy may deepen the addiction and discourage further attempts to quit needed substances. Why? Getting out of addiction requires significant effort to sever the connections between the substance and the tissue, as without the addictive substance, the person is unable to function. Nevertheless, in line with what some doctors say, it is always worth undertaking a trial to reduce the level of addiction because it diminishes harm and thus improves health outcomes.

  • Why do mitochondria like metformin, but diabetes does not?

    By Marta Koblańska, 4 September 2025, 18.30 Polish time, Photo: diabetes, AI generated, Pixabay

    The drug’s anti-inflammatory effects can help balance copper and iron concentrations in the blood, which can alleviate issues related to excess sugar and diabetes.

    Metformin is a widely administered anti-diabetes drug. Its contribution to lowering excessive glucose levels has already been confirmed, and the link here is clear. However, the drug with a 60-year tradition of utilization can have much more sophisticated properties influencing the composition of blood serum via the reduction in levels of copper and iron, along with an increase in levels of zinc. How does this action impact the work and overall condition of a body? – A new study led by scientists from Kobe University and published in the BMJ journals sheds light on the issues.

    In line with the study’s results, metformin acts as a cleaner affecting metal dynamics within the organism. It reduces copper absorption in the intestine as well as levels of iron and ferritin (a special protein responsible for the accumulation of iron in the tissue). What’s more, according to scientists, long-term use can induce latent iron deficiency in its users. Iron is a crucial metal to sustain pregnancy at the earlier stages, as it binds with folic acid, which determines to a great degree the start of health, if not the developmental potential of the embryo and then the fetus.

    However, the structure emerging after metformin and iron exchange, in line with scientists’ statements, remains intricate and far less understood than the relation between the drug and copper. The first one largely depends on reaction conditions. Regarding zinc, an element that contributes to better functioning in a cold environment, and its higher concentrations in the case of metformin intake, the effects of this association remain unclear.

    What does the chelation (the binding between metal ions and organic compounds) caused by metformin mean for diabetes? Disruptions in insulin production in the body cause severe health effects, gradually changing, let’s say, the performance of the organism as a whole, as well as organs that build it up. The most common complications at the advanced stage of the disease include impairment of vision, heart failure, and walking problems, as the condition highly impacts vessels delivering vital nutrients and oxygen within the organism. The changes in concentration of elements such as copper and iron within the blood serum have been shown to ameliorate glucose intolerance and health failure in animal models, so far, according to the scientists.

    These findings collectively suggest that the reduced copper levels of metformin users uncovered in the present study may be linked to the glucose-lowering and complication-preventive effects of the drug write scientists.

    They add that, in addition, higher iron and lower zinc levels in blood are generally associated with glucose intolerance.

    What is glucose intolerance, and why is it so important?

    Glucose intolerance occurs along with a limited capacity for its processing in the body. Simplifying it is caused by insufficient production of insulin in the pancreas (the islets of Langerhans), which results in a high concentration of sugar in the blood and intolerance to the insulin hormone. This resistance, called intolerance, makes other cells less sensitive to insulin, which ultimately, if not stopped on time, leads to diabetes, i.e., too high glucose levels in the blood. Metformin reduces the overbalance.

    Why the newly launched anti-diabetes drug imeglimin, structurally similar to metformin seen as without metal-chelating properties due to its cyclic structure, is an open question. According to some experts, the structure of the new one seems to be just less stable (bindings), which may facilitate/ease the movements of atoms within the structure. Possibly, it may be an explanation why the therapy becomes more efficient in diabetes, as it causes less fixed outcome, and that could be in favor for diabetes, as patients are vulnerable to either glucose overdose or deficit.

    Why are mitochondria beneficial when it comes to metformin?

    According to scientists, the structure specified for the substance sequesters copper in mitochondria. That makes the organelle’s work, let’s say, more efficient. In line with the study, ,, mitochondrial copper plays a pivotal role in macrophage activation, and a designed dimeric compound derived from metformin but with an ∼1000- fold greater copper-chelating activity was found to manifest potent anti-inflammatory effects both in vitro and in vivo. That could lead to a preliminary conclusion that certain binding types enhanced with metformin may contribute to the anticancer activity of the drug’- write scientists.

     

     

     

  • Czarne dziury. Trochę naukowych spekulacji

    By Adrian Cho, Science, Jan 7,2021, translated by Marta Koblańska, January 2021, Photo: czarna dziura, obraz wygenerowany przez AI, Kyraxys, Pixabay

    Choć brzmi to jak fantastyka, czarne dziury są we Wszechświecie. I choć wielu fizyków było sceptycznych wobec pojawiających się coraz to nowych teorii dotyczących ich natury i istnienia , to jednak nie mogą zaprzeczyć obserwacjom teleskopowym.

    Podczas pracy nad swoim doktoratem we wczesnych latach 70. Saul Teukolsky rozwiązał problem, który wydawał się być czysto hipotetyczny. Jaki? Wyobraź sobie czarną dziurę, upiorny węzeł grawitacji, który formuje się wówczas, kiedy wielkie gwiazdy ulegają wyczerpaniu i wpadają w nieskończenie mały punkt. Przypuszczalnie możesz ten proces zakłócić w sposób podobny do uderzenia w dzwon. Jak odpowiada czarna dziura?

    Teukolsky, wówczas student studiów magisterskich w California Institute of Technology, zaatakował ten problem przy użyciu ołówka, papieru oraz teorii grawitacji Alberta Einsteina – teorii względności. Odkrył, że podobnie jak w przypadku dzwonu, drgania czarnej dziury dotyczyłyby głównie częstotliwości oraz wielu rodzajów dźwięków harmonicznych. Drgania szybko znikałyby, gdy czarna dziura promieniowałaby falami grawitacyjnymi – pulsacyjnie w strukturze samej przestrzeni. – To był słodki problem– mówi Teukolsky teraz pracownik Cornell University. – I był zupełną abstrakcją jeszcze pięć lat wstecz.

    W lutym 2016 roku eksperymentatorzy z obserwatorium Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), w których w Luizjanie i Waszyngtonie umieszczono parę potężnych instrumentów zaraportowali pierwszą obserwację przelotnych fal grawitacyjnych, wyemitowanych przez dwie czarne dziury, obie około 30-krotnie większe od Słońca, wchodzących w siebie ruchem spiralnym w oddaleniu o 1,3 mld lat świetlnych. LIGO zarejestrował nawet “dzwonienie w dół”: drgania masywniejszej czarnej dziury powstałej w wyniku fuzji. Stara teza Teukolskiego stała się nagle przełomem w fizyce.

    – Myśl, że to co robiłem, będzie miało kiedykolwiek wpływ na rzeczy mierzalne jeszcze podczas mojego życia, była tak bardzo niedorzeczna, że ostatnie pięć lat wydawały się być życiem jak w świecie snu – mówi Teukolsky. – Muszę się uszczypnąć, bo to nie wydaje się rzeczywiste.

    Choć może wydawać się to fantastyką, naukowcy mogą obecnie badać czarne dziury jako rzeczywiste obiekty. Detektory fal grawitacyjnych wykryły cztery tuziny fuzji czarnych dziur odkąd przełomowe odkrycie LIGO zostało poczynione. W kwietniu 2019 roku, w wyniku współpracy międzynarodowej teleskop zwany Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) wyprodukował pierwszy obraz czarnej dziury. Poprzez ustawienie radioteleskopów na całym globie na ogromną czarną dziurę w sercu bliskiej galaktyki Messier 87 (M87), EHT zarejestrował obraz ognistego pierścienia gorącego gazu otaczającego atramentowy “cień” czarnej dziury. W międzyczasie astronomowie obserwują gwiazdy, które zbliżają się do czarnej dziury w centrum naszej Galaktyki, podążając szlakami, które mogą zawierać klucze dotyczące natury samej czarnej dziury.

    Obserwacje stanowią wyzwanie dla astrofizyków i ich założeń na temat tego, jak formują się czarne dziury oraz jak wpływają na swoje otoczenie. Mniejsze wykryte przez LIGO oraz europejski detektor fal grawitacyjnych VIRGO we Włoszech, udowadniają, że są cięższe i bardziej zróżnicowane niż oczekiwano. To zaś wystawia dotychczasowe osiągnięcia astrofizyków na próbę w kontekście zrozumienia z czego mogą powstawać wielkie gwiazdy. A środowisko skupione wokół super wielkiej czarnej dziury w naszej Galaktyce wydaje się zaskakująco płodne, wytwarzając młode gwiazdy, co do których nie oczekiwano, że się uformują w takim zamieszaniu. Jednak niektórzy naukowcy czują się w obowiązku zadania pytania bardziej fundamentalnego: Czy czarne dziury przewidziane teorią Einsteina są rzeczywiście widoczne?

    Niektórzy teoretycy twierdzą, że odpowiedź najprawdopodobniej brzmi „tak”. – Nie myślę, że z tych obserwacji dowiemy się czegoś więcej o samej ogólnej teorii względności lub o teorii czarnych dziur – mówi Robert Wald, teoretyk grawitacji z Uniwersytetu w Chicago.

    Inni już nie są tego tak pewni. – Czy czarne dziury są dokładnie takie same jak można oczekiwać przy uwzględnieniu teorii względności, czy są różne? – pyta Clifford Will, teoretyk grawitacji z Uniwersytetu Floryda. – To wydaje się być główną siłą przyszłych obserwacji. Jakiekolwiek anomalie wymagałyby przemyślenia teorii Eisteina, która jak podejrzewają fizycy, nie jest ostatecznym słowem jeśli chodzi o grawitację, jako że nie pasuje do innego punktu milowego współczesnej fizyki, mechaniki kwantowej.

    – Wykorzystując różnorakie techniki, badacze już pozyskują różne, uzupełniające się spojrzenia na te dziwne obiekty – mówi Andrea Ghez, astrofizyk z Uniwersytetu w Kaliforni, która razem z Rogerem Penrose, oraz Reinhardem Genzel w 2020 roku otrzymała nagrodę Nobla w dziedzinie fizyki za wydedukowanie istnienia ogromnej czarnej dziury w sercu naszej Galaktyki. – Przed nami nadal długa droga do złożenia w całość kompletnego obrazu – mówi – choć z pewnością uzyskujemy coraz więcej elementów tej układanki.

    Składająca się z czystej energii grawitacyjnej, czarna dziura jest kulą przeciwności. Nie zawiera materii, ale jak kula do kręgli, posiada masę i potrafi obracać się. Nie ma powierzchni, ale ma rozmiar. Zachowuje się jak okazały, ciężki obiekt, ale w rzeczywistości jest tylko osobliwością przestrzeni.

    Tak przynajmniej mówi teoria względności, którą Einstein opublikował w 1915 roku. Dwa wieki wcześniej, Isaak Newton przypuszczał, że grawitacja to siła, która w jakichś sposób jest obecna w przestrzeni, w celu przyciągania do siebie masywnych obiektów. Einstein poszedł dalej i argumentował, że grawitacja pojawia się ponieważ masywne obiekty takie jak gwiazdy i planety zakrzywiają przestrzeń i czas, a dokładniej czasoprzestrzeń, powodując, że trajektorie swobodnie spadających obiektów zakrzywiają się w, powiedzmy, łuk paraboli podobnie jak rzucana kula.

    Wczesne przewidywania ogólnej względności różniły się jedynie nieznacznie od tych z teorii Newtona. Tam, gdzie Newton przewidywał, że planeta powinna okrążać gwiazdę po elipsie, ogólna teoria względności przewiduje, że orientacja elipsy powinna nieznacznie wzrosnąć lub poddać się precesji w stosunku do każdej orbity. Przy pierwszym triumfie teorii, Einstein wykazał, że przekładała się ona na wcześniej niewyjaśnioną precesję orbity planety Merkury. Po latach fizycy zdali sobie sprawę, że teoria ta również zakłada coś daleko bardziej radykalnego.

    W roku 1939 teoretyk Robert Oppenheimer wraz z zespołem obliczył, że kiedy następuje wypalenie odpowiednio wielkiej gwiazdy żadna znana siła nie może powstrzymać zapadnięciu się jej jądra do nieskończenie małego punktu. Taka gwiazda zostawia przy tym za sobą swoje pole grawitacyjne jako trwałą dziurę w czasoprzestrzeni. Przy pewnej odległości tego punktu, grawitacja byłaby tak silna, że nawet światło nie byłoby w stanie przed nią uciec. – Cokolwiek byłoby bliżej, zostałoby odcięte od pozostałej części Wszechświata – argumentował David Finkelstein, teoretyk z California Institute of Technology Caltech w 1958 roku. Ten “horyzont zdarzeń” nie jest fizyczną powierzchnią. Astronauta spadający obok nie zauważyłby nic specjalnego. Tak, czy inaczej, uzasadniał Finkelstein, który zmarł chwilę przed obwieszczeniem LIGO w 2016 roku, horyzont zachowywałby się podobnie do jednokierunkowej błony, pozwalając na upadek obiektów do wewnątrz, ale zapobiegając wydostaniu się ze środka.

    Zgodnie z ogólną teorią względności, te obiekty, w końcu nazwane czarnymi dziurami przez słynnego teoretyka Johna Archibalda Wheelera, powinny również wykazywać porażającą monotonność. W 1963 roku Roy Kerr, matematyk z Nowej Zelandii, wypracował w jaki sposób wirowanie czarnej dziury z określonej masy zakrzywiałoby i przekręcało czasoprzestrzeń. Inni szybko udowodnili, że, przy teorii względności, masa i spin są jedynymi cechami czarnej dziury, co oznacza, że matematyczny wzór Kerra, znany jako wyrażenie Kerra opisuje każdą czarną dziurę jaka istnieje. Wheeler nazywał wynik twierdzeniem o braku włosów, aby podkreślić, że dwie czarne dziury o tej samej masie i spinie są tak samo nie do odróżnienia jak łyse głowy. Wheeler sam był łysy, Teukolsky zauważa, że to mogła być “duma łysego”.

    – Niektórzy fizycy podejrzewali, że czarne dziury mogą istnieć jedynie w wyobraźni teoretyków – mówi Sean Carroll, teoretyk z Caltech. Sceptycy argumentowali, że czarne dziury mogą stanowić artefakt wyższej matematyki ogólnej teorii względności lub mogą formować się jedynie wskutek nierealistycznych warunków, takich jak zapadnięcie się idealnie sferycznej gwiazdy. Jednakże w późnych latach 60. Roger Penrose, fizyk-teoretyk z Uniwersytetu w Oksfordzie rozwiał te wątpliwości, stosując ścisłe zasady matematyki za co w 2020 roku razem z Reinhardem Genzel i Andreą Ghez otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla w dziedzinie fizyki. – Penrose dokładnie dowiódł, że nawet przy obiekcie pokaźnych rozmiarów, o ile jego gęstość stanie się odpowiednio wysoka, zapadnie się on w czarną dziurę – mówi Carrol.

    Wystarczająco wcześnie astronomowie zaczęli widywać oznaki obecnych czarnych dziur. Dostrzegli niewielkie źródła promieniowania X takie jak Cyngus X-1, każde na orbicie gwiazdy. Astrofizycy wywnioskowali, że promienie x pochodzą z gazu wypływającego z gwiazdy i nagrzewającego się w razie jego opadania na tajemniczy obiekt. Temperatura gazu i szczegóły orbity sugerowały, że źródło promieniowania x było zbyt silne i zbyt małe, aby być czymkolwiek innym niż czarną dziurą. Podobne rozumowanie sugerowało, że kwazary – odległe galaktyki emitujące promieniowanie, są napędzane przez ogromne czarne dziury w ich centrach.

    – Ale nikt nie mógł być pewien, że te czarne dziury są obecnie tym, co przedstawili teoretycy, zauważa Feryal Özel, astrofizyk z Uniwersytetu w Arizonie. Na przykład – niewiele z tego co dotychczas zdziałano, ugruntowuje wiedzę na temat istnienia horyzontu zdarzeń – mówi – To jest pytanie otwarte.

    Obecnie, za pomocą wielu dróg mających na celu podglądanie czarnych dziur, naukowcy mogą zacząć badać swoje zrozumienie tematu oraz poszukiwać niespodzianek, które zrewolucjonizują fizykę. – Nawet jeśli jest to mało prawdopodobne, to niezwykle ważne jest, żeby odkryć czy miały miejsce jakiegokolwiek odchylenia od ogólnej teorii względności – mówi Carrol. – To jest pytanie bardzo wysokiego ryzyka oraz pytanie wysokiej nagrody.

    Naukowcy mają nadzieję odpowiedzieć na trzy pytania. Czy obserwowane czarne dziury rzeczywiście mają horyzont zdarzeń? Czy są one tak bardzo pozbawione cech, jak mówi twierdzenie o braku włosów? I czy zniekształcają czasoprzestrzeń dokładnie tak jak przewiduje wyrażenie/metryka Kerra (rozwiązanie równań Einsteina – przyp. MK)?

    Możliwe, że najprostszym narzędziem w celu uzyskania odpowiedzi jest to opracowane przez Ghez. Od 1995 roku ona i jej zespół wykorzystują 10-metrowy teleskop Kecka na Hawajach w celu obserwacji gwiazd wokół źródła promieniowania znanego jako Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*) w centrum naszej Galaktyki. W 1998 roku wysoka prędkość gwiazd ujawniła, że okrążają one obiekt 4 mln razy większy od Słońca. Ponieważ Sgr A* wtłacza tak wiele masy w tak małą objętość, ogólna teoria względności przewiduje, że musi być ogromną czarną dziurą. Reinhard Genzel, astrofizyk z Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics niezależnie obserwował gwiazdy dochodząc do tego samego wniosku, za co dzielił z Getz Nagrodę Nobla.

    Tekst oryginalny w języku angielskim. Dziękując autorowi – Adrianowi Cho z przeprosinami za niedociągnięcia w języku polskim.

  • How to make cancer dead in the body? Blood holds the key

    by Marta Koblańska, 27.08.2025, 16:47 Poland’s time. Photo: CTC in cancer, Circulating tumor cells in the metastatic cascade (spreading fast), Cancer Cell

    Circulating tumor cells in the bloodstream may be crucial for therapies and preventing new metastases in the body. However, success depends on their molecular structure.

    Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are utilized to assess an organism’s overall condition in response to cancer, which may have been previously detected or could potentially be found later in the body. The increasingly common “liquid biopsy” enables the identification of cancer-associated mutations and allows for early detection of cancer, often indicating which organ may be affected.

    When the biopsy is performed during ongoing treatment, CTCs can provide valuable information about mutations in the cancer’s genetic makeup that may be linked to drug resistance. This resistance frequently emerges during therapy, but unfortunately, there is no consistent explanation for why it occurs. The troubling aspect of this resistance is that it complicates treatment significantly, and in some cases, it may even render treatment impossible. Consequently, this remains one of the major reasons why many cancer patients continue to die, despite the availability of the latest therapies.

    In the study ,,Circulating tumor cells: ,,Blood-based detection, molecular biology, and clinical applications” published in a journal ,,Cancer Cell”, scientists asked some questions on the potential of blood analyses in relation to cancer outcome and diagnosis.

    According to scientists, CTCs can contribute to understanding the molecular features, including factors that enable their intravasation, their survival in the bloodstream, and their extravasation to generate distant lesions. Can they also inspire novel therapeutic strategies to suppress cancer metastasis? – ask scientists. If so, can CTCs also be utilized to non-invasively interrogate molecular markers of progression during treatment, improve risk stratification prior to initiating therapy, or even possibly diagnose early cancerous lesions before the development of viable metastases? 

    Currently, to get an efficient, let’s say, picture of an overall condition of the body, is prior identification of a tumor or a lethal metastatic presence, which remains a major challenge. How this lethal metastasis hides within an organism still is a mystery, although with some tips. The tip here is the suppression of other lesions through emitted CTCs. (However hardly possible to detect) On the other hand, they (CTCs) could be the way to detect newly acquired changes. How? Ultimately or universally, the answer here could be blood and its components, as well as reactions between them, possibly with tumors derived DNA analysis coming from the blood as well.

    Hematogenous dissemination of metastases is mediated by CTCs that travel from the primary tumor to multiple distant organs, where they can establish new cancerous lesions and then spread to additional organ sites

    say Charles S. Dai and Daniel A. Haber from Dana-Faber Cancer Institute, Harvard University

    The experts admit that a vast number of biological properties of CTS’s are already known; however, due to technological limitations, their clinical promise and, in consequence, utilization may be restricted. Some medics do not like this liquid biopsy because the outcome is not often clear. It is not clear, as to some extent it may be seen as a lottery, why one body has a lethal and non-active tumor, which both drives and suppresses cancer cells’ spread. In addition to getting a reliable outcome, blood volumes for interrogation have to be properly estimated, as the key is to detect those rare cancer cells that contribute significantly to metastases. And this is not so easy, particularly in patients with advanced cancer disease and poor overall condition. Scientists have noted that simpler strategies for DNA sequencing, which use cell-free circulating tumor-derived DNA (ctDNA), have become more clinically useful (and economically feasible- MK) as a form of “liquid biopsy.” This method allows for the identification of cancer-associated mutations that are linked to drug resistance and facilitates the early detection of cancer through DNA-based signatures.

    A simplified conclusion could be that the combination of DNA, RNA, and protein analytes derived from intact cells in the blood may allow for a definitive cancer diagnosis in patients without the need for an invasive tissue biopsy. Additionally, this approach could reveal functionally actionable subclonal mutations that might not be detected through single-lesion biopsy-based analysis. Scientists suggest that future applications in early cancer detection and the molecular characterization of minimal residual disease could surpass current analyses based on circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA).

  • Science-confirmed reason to welcome guests

    By Marta Koblańska, August 22, 2025, 12:20 Poland’s time, photo: DNA’s clash, Placidplace, Pixabay

    The risk for a population to become extinct increases along with extended and intensified inbreeding, American scientists claim. Simultaneously, genetic diversity may be taken as an advantage.

    In ancient Egypt, inbreeding was seen as a method to preserve the population’s exceptional traits and contribute to a more advanced society. This approach was effective for a time; however, over time, excessive genetic similarity ultimately led to the collapse of this great civilization. Recently, scientists in California, USA, have confirmed that the extension of homozygous stretches (similar sections) in the genetic code (DNA) serves as a reliable genomic marker for inbreeding breakdown.

    These long runs of homozygosity are associated with reduced rates of survival as well as reproduction in diverse mammals and bird species,

    claim Christopher C. Kyriazis of Conservation Genetics, San Diego Zoo, Escondido, Jacqueline A. Robinson of Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, and Kirk E. Lohmueller of Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles.

    An overall rule applicable to all societies and species, including humans, is that fitness, typically measured with reproduction and survival rates, represents one of the most important markers to assess a population’s stability or potential deterioration. Many studies have been conducted to prove whether a higher genetic variation is linked to better conditions of a population. Those study results were unclear. However, the is clear that shared ancestry may negatively impact fitness.

    With the advancement of modern methods for identifying potentially harmful mutations in genomic variation datasets, new research opportunities have emerged. Scientists now widely use these methods to estimate fitness and genetic load in wild populations, often to assess extinction risk status. Given that earlier discoveries highlighted the similarities between mammalian and human genetic codes, why can’t these methods be applied to human populations as well?

    What does homozygosity mean?

    To answer the above question, first, let’s try to explain what homozygosity means in reality. Simplifying, these are identical haplotypes from related ancestors inherited in a given genome. A haplotype represents a group of genes that originate from just one parent and are located close to each other, potentially constituting a contiguous stretch in the genome. Not to dive into a dump, this is our past and heritage we all have, whether we like it or not. A simple conclusion could be: the longer similar sections within DNA, the closer ancestors we have inherited.

    Because the length of an ROH (long runs of homozygosity) is determined by the number of generations of recombination separating related individuals from a common ancestor, the ROH length distribution in a population is in turn reflective of demographic history,

    say scientists in the paper titled,,Long runs of homozygosity are reliable genomic markers of inbreeding depression” and published in ,,Trends in Ecology&Evolution”

    They add that the short stretches with a similar group of genes tend to arise due to historical population bottlenecks, whereas long ROH are a product of more recent inbreeding between closely related individuals. Moreover, it is also possible to estimate the inbreeding coefficient as well as uncover complex traits associated with inbreeding.

    The victor and the defeated

    Long runs of homozygosity (ROH), while not inherently harmful, may be more susceptible to harmful mutations under certain conditions. In contrast, deleterious mutations are less frequent in shorter ROH stretches. This can create a bottleneck effect. Additionally, short ROH segments are often exposed to purifying selection for a longer period, which helps eliminate recessive deleterious variants more effectively, according to scientists.

    In general, the longer the similar stretches of DNA, the worse the outcomes for a species or population. This was demonstrated by Zachary Szpiech in a pioneering paper, which suggested that closer inbreeding increases the likelihood of harmful mutations that negatively affect overall health and fitness. Data from American scientists show that a 1% increase in the prevalence of long runs of homozygosity (ROH) is associated with a 12.4% reduction in first-year survival rates, compared to only a 7.7% reduction for medium ROH. However, evolution sometimes compensates for these adverse effects, demonstrating its remarkable principles and capabilities. How? Long runs of homozygosity (ROH) are primarily caused by rare recessive deleterious mutations, which can have a significant negative impact. However, in certain cases, when two recessive genes come together, the overall effect can be better than average in conditions where neither gene is harmful. The theoretical link between long ROH and fitness is expected, as these long runs consist of younger haplotypes that have experienced limited purifying selection to eliminate strongly deleterious recessive alleles, according to scientists.

  • Will Canada’s cut in the Russian oil price benchmark contribute to peace in Ukraine? Or not?

    By Marta Koblanska, August 12, 17:20 Poland ‘s time, Photo: Ship, thanks to jpeter2, Pixabay

    A territorial swap for the lives of Ukrainians is becoming increasingly likely, despite Ukraine’s leader initially rejecting any land concessions. Canada’s recent decision to reduce the price cap on Russian oil by approximately 20 percent has reshaped the negotiations but may be viewed as a boundary condition.

    The oil market shaped up after the Second World War, and no past or potential changes in its structure so far have touched the core in terms of its rules. (One cook while everybody wants to eat). Some changes in trading can be seen, such as the Indian basket launch. More expensive than others (approximately by 5-7 percent) because no one could steal the oil destined for India. Whether it works or not, Indians should be asked; nevertheless, sometimes a higher price enables getting more volumes, and anyway, it is compensated in fuel sales. Europe, particularly Germany, has become keen on purchasing Indian fuels since the onset of the war in Ukraine.

    Canada’s oil represents one of the cheapest on the market, with an average 15-18 percent below the benchmark, which is Brent oil for Europe. (A very interesting story is how the Brent benchmark was constituted, which dates back to the beginning of the 20th century.) This is because this sort of crude (Canadian) is heavy and sour due to the land’s structure from which it is extracted. That means more sophisticated, deep processing is needed (what ultimately increases the costs of fuel production) to locate the crude product on the market. Similar is with Russia’s Urals, considered by some as a heavy crude with a higher share of sulfur than, for instance, the oil from the Middle East. That keeps its price below Brent’s price, however, with a discounted transport distance. The sulfur case was one of the reasons why countries wanted to switch to more productive oil, calling the Russian one less efficient. However, as some experts emphasize, sometimes this sour oil might be much better for refineries and fuel production than the lighter one. True or not, that makes both markets strongly competitive and the war in Ukraine, although upset the trading, has not stopped it – according to reliable sources.

    After the sanctions were imposed, Russia increased its share of overall oil deliveries to regions that are considered competitive with Brent and Urals. This increase occurred in areas that Brent or WTI could not fully supply, either due to production limits or high transportation costs. You might wonder how this is possible. The answer is straightforward: oil-producing countries periodically set production quotas. Typically, these countries maintain a unified stance as they have specific obligations to both themselves and the oil-importing countries. However, Russia often acts in opposition to the core OPEC members, which sometimes leads those countries to accommodate Russia’s, let’s say, requests.

    And now, back to Canada, which, allegedly in cooperation with the EU and the UK, decided to cut the price limit for Russian oil by approximately. 21 percent from theoretically binding 60 dollars per barrel to 47,6 dollars per barrel transported via sea. That should, in the Canadian view, make Russian oil substantially cheaper than Canadian one and thus decrease income from oil sales on vessels for Russia.

    However, according to recognized experts, tracking oil transported via sea is much more difficult than via pipes. The sea transport is also more risky and thus more expensive. Still, it is more open. Any limits raise the risk for traders who do not need to be Russians to sell Russian oil. So the question could be – Is Canada willing to eliminate competition? The country’s production costs are higher than in other parts of the world, particularly the Middle East. Nonetheless, it is feasible for Canada to sell its oil below the average global price. For Russia, which during the war in Ukraine decided not to share its extraction data, an average capex for companies can amount to approximately 10-20 dollars per barrel, depending on the field. The key here could be the quality of the extracted oil. Worse from older fields and thus with much lower production costs, and much better from the new ones with higher production costs but more efficient. One or another, that proportion may allow traders to keep the risk at an acceptable level. The risk for those operating the extraction may be higher.

    How does all of this relate to Ukraine and the expressed potential territorial swap in exchange for a ceasefire and peace? Russia is not that far from Canada, but, if I may simplify, natural borders maintain the security of (a paradox) both countries. In the case of Ukraine, the location is not that advantageous. Additionally, the country’s energy balance is not in favor. The war has not improved it, as oil consumption dropped dramatically, and the most important refineries have been destroyed or damaged. Ukraine had seven refineries with overall production capacity exceeding four times Ukraine’s oil product demand. However, despite the bloody war, the country managed to maintain a relevant share of oil in the so-called energy mix, mainly for transportation and industrial use, and this could/should be included during the negotiations. Poland and Romania are key fuel suppliers, and (a paradox), this advantage comes from the Soviet Era.

    Nonetheless, some may argue that the looming green transformation could be a solution for Ukraine. It was, indeed, as the US offered earlier this year a 10 percent land concession in exchange for huge investments in the new metals. That deal, if implemented, could serve as an economic guarantee from the US to Ukraine. (Sometimes much better than a virtual military guarantee, as usually the economic zone of influence is respected.) Ukraine rejected it. (To recall the Marshall Plan for Western Europe, Poland, and possibly others halted by the Soviets, with no space for discussion.) Now, when the risk for everybody seems to be substantially higher along with the Russian Army’s movements, the ongoing and, so far, unsuccessful attempts to squeeze Russian oil revenues, Ukraine’s situation might be more difficult, but still with arguments. Whether it comes to a peace or not, the Alaska meeting will show.

  • When security kills. NATO country inflicting humanitarian crisis, Russia’s civilized rule of war

    By Marta Koblańska, 8.08.2025, 11:00 Poland’s time, photo: Gaza, thanks to Hosnysalah, Pixabay

    Are we witnessing a shift in NATO policy toward civilians? Israeli plans to take over Gaza and get rid of Palestinians may be an example. At the same time, Russia is washing its hands in its war against Ukraine.

    The fact that Russia inflicted a humanitarian crisis in Ukraine’s Mariupol at the beginning of the ongoing war in Ukraine should not be a topic for discussion. However, the country finally opened humanitarian corridors and slightly modified its war tactics against Ukraine. That does not mean attacks on and destruction of energy infrastructure do not impose such a crisis. They do, but not immediately; nevertheless, seasonally, particularly during the winter, the results of destroyed infrastructure are acute. Of course, Russians, as CNN recently showed, are keen to show their mercy. Undertaken moves to split off Cherson after the bridge connecting both parts of the city has been blown up, and displace its citizens (they were given a week to leave) may be an example of a new occupation strategy.

    Russians may say ,,look, we are in, but we save lives of people – women, so please, do not imply we are not a civilized nation”. Of course that’s better than killing and showing it in a TV –  ,,see what we can do, when you do not accept our rule”. But, no matter if one likes it or not, Ukraine is losing ground as earlier reports stipulated about 100-120 losses in people in Ukraine’s troops daily.

    In Gaza climate is hot, so any disturbance can cause diseases, famine, and, as a consequence, a substantial increase in hate. And that should not be ignored by any side of the conflict, no matter who started it. CNN recently suggested an immediate ceasefire in the region for 30 days on condition that Hamas would release the living hostages by that time. If it fails, Israel can automatically renew its military strikes. Some moves have been undertaken to alleviate the humanitarian crisis, such as controlled trade, airdrops, or allowing more lorries with aid to enter.

    However, still, as the World Health Organization states, the majority of children’s nutrition status in Gaza is highly questionable. Images from the region are horrifying, and they are not just Hamas propaganda. Of course, there are more children in Gaza needing help, both in medical services and nutrition intake, than hostages taken by Hamas, so the time to repair the damages made to the youngest ones will last substantially longer. But it does not mean Hamas can stop delivering a minimum food and water to hostages. Moreover, the organization should care for the hostages as much as possible. Why? Paradox, but those innocent people represent the only chance that the Israeli Prime Minister abandons his plans and shows will to negotiate the second ceasefire deal for Gaza.

  • Why does the most advanced country in medicine wipe out another that needs health aid?

    By Marta Koblańska, August 1, 13:00 Polish time, Photo thanks to Elstef, Pixabay

    Israel continues its harsh response following Hamas’s dumb attack on the country, which resulted in the deaths and abductions of innocent and politically uninvolved individuals. As a result, Palestinians are suffering hell.

    If one were to assess the value of a single life in the Middle East, the calculations would vary greatly between different countries in the region. This difference can partly be attributed to the fact that these assessments were made some time ago and are updated periodically. Currently, a Palestinian life seems to carry less value, and unfortunately, this devaluation can be seen in various parts of the world, where some nations are regarded as less valuable than others. The fairness of this situation is irrelevant.

    Eighty years after the end of the Second World War and the establishment of new global norms, Israel—which has made enormous efforts to save its citizens—is simultaneously inflicting suffering and starvation on others. However, in 2022, the number of work permits for Gazans in Israel increased. 

    Following the breakdown of a ceasefire deal between Israel and Hamas, which both parties had responsibly upheld, recent data from Palestinian health officials indicates around 8,500 new deaths in the Gaza Strip. Since the onset of Israel’s military response in the Gaza Strip in October 2023, approximately 70,000 Palestinians have been killed, with some sources estimating total casualties to be around 100,000.

    Israel initially lost 1,200 people in the Hamas attack in October 2023, and 251 individuals were taken into captivity under conditions that are better not specified. Fortunately, some of them were released. 

    Tragically, Hamas eventually refused to release all of them on schedule, despite this being outlined in the ceasefire agreement reached in January 2025. According to reports from aid and medical agencies, now, approximately 10 to 12 Palestinians die every hour, not including those already killed or counted as deceased. 

     

  • How do power prices account for the security of social welfare?

    By Marta Koblanska, 29 July 2025, 12.10 Polish time, Photo thanks to geralt, Pixabay

    After Poland jumped to the top of the global rating of electricity prices for business at the end of 2023, the country suddenly downgraded its position at the end of 2024.

    Security of power supply stipulates a suitable amount of energy delivered when needed on condition accepted by a buyer in the short and medium-term (long-term in case of investments that need a longer period of return, which usually are the green-field ones. Those bring job places but also cost money for an investor). That means the power price is crucial for the competitiveness of businesses and their security to continue. Consumption of goods depends on their price and whether these are goods critical for existence, while power is always critical for existence.

    We can choose not to buy chocolate, but we must purchase essentials like bread and medicine. Therefore, the price of goods for individual consumers must be affordable, while investors providing these products should still achieve the planned rate of return outlined in the business feasibility study. Sometimes, countries waive taxes to preserve or create jobs, but this usually occurs when a company’s operating costs exceed its expected profits. The general principle to encourage business stability is to maintain a consistent legal framework, along with manageable operating costs that include labor and energy expenses, relative to the product’s price and forecasted demand. The link here is thus clear – the more energy costs, the cheaper the labor has to be. 

    Moreover, the more power weights in the total costs of production or functioning of any business, the higher the price of a product. In the worst scenario, the price of the final product becomes impossible to afford for the consumer, or there are available similar goods at a lower price. And that means business bankruptcy or withdrawal from the area it was set due to the decline of its feasibility. Power prices for Poland may explain why many companies are now facing employment reductions, closure, or simply canceling their planned investments. But at the same time, too low a power price may bring instability, and the assessment of the area it applies to may not be in favour. Why? Because of possible or foreseen disruptions. And in this case, it is not really important whether the perceived disruptions are a genuine threat or just the effect of the government’s policy.

    According to ,,Global Petrol Prices,” the price per 1kwh of power at the end of 2023 accounted for 2,175 zł (PLN) in Poland. Italy paid 1,851 and the UK 1,837 zł at that time. An average-sized bakery may need roughly 100 thousand kWh of electricity a year. That makes the total cost about 217 thousand PLN annually in Poland. In comparison, the price in the US equaled 0,527 zł for kWh and in Portugal 0,598 at the end of 2023. At the end of 2024, the power price for businesses in Poland amounted to 1,19 zł per kWh zł (0,329 USD), in Germany 0,292 USD, 0,478 USD in the UK, 0,423 USD in Italy, 0,185 USD in France, and 0,143 USD in the US. ( Cruel but true, rapid price drop can mean the economy is shrinking and energy intake is no longer sufficient for its buyers, i.e., quotas are somehow limited.) So, how can the business in Poland compete with this one operating in another area, particularly on the EU free market? The natural way is a bonus for the location. But it matters only for domestic or surrounding markets. Exports also cost as transport needs energy as well, and this energy comes in majority, so far from oil.

    What’s not very popular, but true, electricity is usually more expensive in more developed countries and countries with, what is a paradox, more stable economy (apart from those with the majority of nuclear power in general intake– i.e. France or the US, where historically energy is very cheap). The key is how the energy cost is shared in an average income or profits earned from the location business operates. For instance, Norway maintains quite high power prices despite its natural reserves and being an exporter, so does the UK, but at the same time, the countries keep salaries and other costs at a level that allows businesses to cope with power prices. Luxembourg’s prices place in the middle of the rating (0,22 USD per kWh in December 2024). But Poland further ranks behind such tax-free zones as Cayman (0,384 USD) or the Bahamas (0,354 per kWh) despite the obvious bonus due to location. Nevertheless, to be fair, with no advantages in terms of taxes and the population size. The only consolation, although in question, is that Slovakia’s position is not so far from Poland’s. But still with a price for business much below 2 zł per kWh in 2023 and 0,297 USD per kWh at the end of 2024. The Czech Republic’s price for business is 0,239 USD per kWh in December 2024. Ukraine’s – 0,166 USD.

    Why does the situation in Poland look as it does? Partly because Polish Oil and Gas Company PGNiG, a part of Orlen Group now, is buying a substantial share of natural gas in Amsterdam. That gas has to be delivered to the country. That means transit fees for the Netherlands and Germany if transported via pipes or stockpiling and shipping fees if transported via sea. This is why the stock price is different than the price for the final buyer. Some costs are included in tariffs. Small business in Poland constitutes 40 percent of the gas market share, and it has to pay more for gas because of the location, although this is not so bad (in the middle of Europe). The transport from the Netherlands is for a longer distance, so automatically, Poland pays more than Germany for the same gas or oil (the price also depends on the quantities). However, Germany is now taking a substantial portion of oil also from India at favourable prices as India can give discounts because it benefits from them anyway. In Poland, the government guarantees, instead, a pension after 10 years of work in India and one payment to Poland’s retirement incumbent ZUS. (An open question could be if the UK finally managed to sign a new trade deal with India?). This all ends with lower electricity prices for Germany and better-paid labor, while in Poland, the government is trying to further cut labor costs. In addition, business in Poland pays some costs of individual consumption of natural gas in line with old legal obligations. The average price for gas used for cooking, i.e., in the group of weakest consumption, equals in Poland about 6,5 percent of income. In Germany, almost 12 percent of the group with the lowest earnings. But the minimum wage per hour in Poland is about PLN 32-33 zł (gross), in Germany, almost double. That all makes the costs of living comparable or sometimes higher in Poland than in Germany. Why? Partly due to the currency used for shopping payments, and different interest rates set in line with inflation targets. In Europe, the latter one also depends on an average power price and the market size, as well as the property’s appraisal, which in the case of Warsaw is similar to Helsinki.

    So what about humans’ security in this case? It is disrupted. The lower the energy price, it can be disrupted to a higher degree. And opposite. Moreover, people living in modern civilization need a job to cover their living expenses, heat during the winter, cooling during the summer, food, and medications to sustain life. Although Western countries have secured the distribution of a portion of income to people in need in the form of social support, this may still be too low to cope with the conditions created by mature economies and their requirements, as well as opportunities. The living costs are therefore high. For most people, the only way to reach an average standard is to work. But when companies have to pay a high energy price, living costs are surging while individual income is limited. When the price is almost nothing, it means huge savings are in use.

    Interestingly, Poland’s government has foreseen the situation that Poles, particularly the disabled, may need a kind of an additional support, with its amount depending on the degree of health loss. (Sometimes it is cheaper to get rid of people, even paying for leave, than keep job places. However, that lies in contradiction to Poland’s strategy during the COVID pandemic when the government i.e. all taxpayers, paid companies to maintain job places even without real work at the same time cutting those which, despite their contribution to the budget, turned out to be virtually too costly). However, this latest support may harm future pensions as it is shared within administrative law. The risk is that this money taken from the state wallet (possibly coming from the EU budget, but as a loan, not a gift) may need to be returned, or the pension/retirement money may be lowered in line with the amount provided for the so-called support.

  • Is male or female a weak sex?

    by Marta Koblańska, July 26, 18:10, Photo: DNA, author TyliJura, Pixabay

    The relationship between the male sex code and the female body is unclear. However, a virtual degradation leads to a selective advantage, though this may be misleading, according to a study conducted by Austrian scientists.

    Sex determinants, namely the X and Y chromosomes, emerge from the process of mitosis, which involves the division of genetic material in a cell’s nucleus at an average speed of approximately 8 hours. If this process occurs too quickly or too slowly, it can disrupt vital bodily cycles; nonetheless, sometimes such changes are necessary (i.e., during cancer treatment).

    Where does the sex code begin?

    The Austrian researchers confirm that the initial step in the evolution of sex chromosomes involves an autosome acquiring a sex-determining gene. This finding challenges the previous understanding that autosomes are solely responsible for the majority of an organism’s traits, excluding those related to sex. 

    Next comes recombination, a process that results in the loss of certain features and functions, while the sex-determining chromosomes gain others. This occurs during meiosis. For example, the male Y chromosome pairs with the originally female X chromosome, losing some of its length while accumulating fewer deleterious mutations. This may provide certain advantages and enrich its function. However, the process is entirely random, and the outcomes can be unpredictable, meaning some luck is involved. Fortunately, recombination helps protect against extensive gene loss (degradation), while its suppression prevents mistakes during the pairing of chromosomes (XY) and reduces the potential for errors.

    Do disappearing traits make adaptation more difficult?

    Austrian scientists state that while the emergence of proto-sex chromosomes and the degeneration of Y chromosomes are relatively well understood, the reasons for the suppression of recombination between the X and Y chromosomes remain largely speculative. Unfortunately, one explanation for this phenomenon is that alleles (gene variants) that benefit one sex, specifically males in this case, can be harmful to the other sex. Conversely, the stronger the association between the male sex determinant and its expression within the genetic code, the less likely it is to be expressed in females. Additionally, scientists claim that mutations arising on a Y chromosome can theoretically lead to inversions on the X chromosome, which also suppress X-Y recombination when present in males.

    What is the primary conclusion of the study? According to the authors, no harm should be expected between the sexes when selection is sex-specific but not sexually antagonistic. In other words, if the gene versions on sex chromosomes carry sex-characteristic traits but do not negatively affect the determinants of the opposite sex, then there should be no detrimental impact. This applies as long as the chromosomes do not act against each other, aside from acquiring sex-typical features.

    In the case of male sex, the process is linked to a reduction in chromosome size, which is necessary to avoid disadvantageous mutations. As a result, male sex can be considered weaker in this context. However, a scenario can arise where the male sex determination system includes both the male-determining gene and an allele that benefits males but negatively impacts females. This is advantageous because the harmful effects will not be expressed in females due to a phenomenon known as positive selection, which promotes beneficial traits. Interestingly, all chromosomes within a population may carry some harmful mutations, but the occurrence of these mutations can vary, with some chromosomes carrying more than others by chance.

    The study was published in Trends in Ecology & Evolution” with the title “Sex chromosome evolution in action in fourspine sticklebacks.”

     

     

  • How and why does the hippocampus decline? Some facts

    by Marta Koblańska, 16.07.2025, 16:30 Polish time Photo: Brain, Thanks to geralt, Pixabay

    Alzheimer’s disease, the most common neurodegenerative disorder globally, is often linked to atrophy of the hippocampus. However, a new study conducted by scientists at ShanghaiTech University has revealed that this decline may also be a result of the disease’s progression. Their findings were published in *Cell Reports Medicine*.

    Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is currently the most advanced non-invasive technique in medicine for diagnosing and differentiating diseases, particularly those affecting the nervous system and brain. There are several types of MRI machines that can be used for specific situations. The capabilities and diagnostic potential of MRI depend on the strength of the magnetic field generated by the device, as well as the parameters that can be examined during the scanning session. These parameters include blood flow in nervous tissue, water diffusion between cells and regions, the overall structure of the brain and its segments, and, in the latest version of the device—multimodal MRI—the voxel size. Why is all of this important? Because simultaneously with the technology upgrade, more and more changes in the tissue building up of the human body, including the brain, can be captured. These advancements aim to enhance our understanding of how specific elements of human tissue, including the brain, develop and change. This knowledge is crucial for identifying diseases, as accurate identification can lead to effective treatment options.

    Treating Alzheimer’s disease is quite challenging. While there are some medications and interventions, such as tailored physical activities that consider a patient’s overall condition, these may only slow the progression of the disease. Unfortunately, the overall outlook is not very positive. This disorder can significantly alter a person’s behavior and lead to the loss of skills, memories, speech, and overall cognitive function.

    Although people with Alzheimer’s disease experience significant cognitive impairment, this does not mean they cannot feel or cease to be human. Their decline is much more profound than the typical cognitive changes associated with aging, which usually begin in the 60s and can progress gradually or rapidly. Recently, a remarkable discovery has been made regarding the hippocampus—small structures located in the upper side of the brain, near the temples. The decline of these structures may lead to severe problems with memory, learning, cognitive performance, and emotions. The importance of the hippocampus lies in its role as a critical component of our conscious existence.

    What’s astonishing is that modern science has largely dismissed the conclusions of Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, particularly his idea that unused organs can undergo a process of atrophy. This concept may frighteningly apply to the hippocampus. However, some experts argue that this is only partially true. To support Lamarck’s theories on the workings of nature, an additional point can be made. Atrophy may occur following an injury or inflammation, or when an organ is not needed during the evolutionary process. An example of this is the appendix, located in the lower right side of the abdomen, where the small intestine connects to the large intestine (colon).

    For our ancestors, an appendix helped them digest tough plant matter, such as tree bark. Today, we can live without this part of our digestive system. The appendix is often removed when it becomes inflamed due to injury or when it cannot handle certain types of food. Another example is the spleen, which is frequently damaged in road accidents because of its fragile structure. The spleen can be removed without causing significant problems for the patient, and sometimes this is the only way to save a life, as bleeding from the spleen can be fatal.

    Some may ask a difficult question: Is there time for evolution to get rid of the hippocampus? Alzheimer’s disease begins with the overproduction of certain proteins, which ultimately damage healthy neurons in the brain and trigger an inflammatory process.

    It is already recognized that inflammation is a significant feature of the progression of Alzheimer’s disease, and it is worsening the course of the disease over time. What’s new, recently, scientists from the School of Biomedical Engineering and the State Key Laboratory of Advanced Medical Materials and Devices in Shanghai, China, utilized a new multimodal MRI technique. This approach has revealed that there can be a loss of hippocampal volume even in cases of mild cognitive impairment. Alarmingly, this new technique, which involves deep and detailed analyses of the tissue’s texture, has shown that there can be up to an 86 percent decline in hippocampal volume, depending on the stage and advancement of Alzheimer’s disease, which has three identified stages.

    Specifically, our approach retains 86% of the average volume difference between AD (Alzheimer’s disease) and NC (normal control) (648 versus 751 mm3) and 65% between MCI (mild cognitive impairment) and NC (270 versus 416 mm3)

    claim Yulin Wang. and Dinggang Shen, of the School of Biomedical Engineering and the State Key Laboratory of Advanced Medical Materials and Devices, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China.

    The assessment made by the new MRi can be mistaken in approximately 3-4 percent of the total volume loss. At the same time, according to scientists, ,, visually, the images generated by TUMSyn ( a text-guided universal MRI synthesis model capable of generating brain MRI specified by textual imaging metadata from routinely acquired scans) can most accurately delineate the anatomical structures of various brain regions, providing promising contrast between the hippocampus and surrounding areas” – conclude scientists.

  • Rzeczywiste i iluzoryczne kontrowersje wokół ciąży

    Autor tekstu: Marta Koblańska, 30 maja 2025. Zdjęcie: Zapłodnienie. Licencja TBIT, Pixabay

    Im cięższa jest wada genetyczna zarodka i późniejszego płodu, tym szybciej jest on eliminowany z organizmu kobiety. Lżejsze wady z reguły pozwalają na donoszenie ciąży, choć nie oznacza to, że dziecko przeżyje po urodzeniu – mówią eksperci z zakresu ginekologii i położnictwa oraz neonatologii.

    Organizm ludzki powstaje stopniowo, po połączeniu się komórek płciowych męskiej i żeńskiej oraz skutecznym przemieszczeniu się powstałej zygoty i zagnieżdżeniu się zarodka w jamie macicy kobiety. To ten narząd wyłącznie przypisany kobietom tworzy warunki do rozwoju nowego człowieka. Nieodzownym elementem tego procesu jest podział komórkowy zygoty i późniejszego zarodka. Wraz z następowaniem kolejnych etapów ciąży poszczególne komórki różnicują się budując wyspecjalizowane tkanki, narządy i wreszcie cały organizm zdolny do życia w środowisku zewnętrznym. Tak w skrócie wygląda życie płodowe, ale po drodze może zdarzyć się wiele zakłóceń.

    Ewolucja tak „zaplanowała” zarówno genetykę, jak i anatomię, że w przypadku modelowego rozwoju ciąży dziecko rodzi się około 39. tygodnia, kiedy wykształcony jest szkielet zdolny do utrzymania ciała, a narządy wewnętrzne mogą już przyswajać pokarm poza organizmem kobiety. Płuca są zaś na tyle dojrzałe i sprawne, że podejmują wymianę gazową z otoczeniem zewnętrznym. Serce, którego zalążki albo zalążek mogą kształtować się już w około 5. tygodniu ciąży oplecione jest wydolnymi naczyniami, z których najważniejsze są tętnice dostarczające tlen do powstających narządów oraz mózgu (żyły kształtują się później). Mózg zaś dojrzewa jeszcze przez wiele lat po narodzinach, podobnie jak układ kostny, istotnie warunkujący osiągnięcie wieku dojrzałego oraz długość życia.

    Ale tak jak w toku każdego procesu tworzenia, przekształceń i w każdym życiu, w czasie jego trwania może dojść do mniej lub bardziej nieoczekiwanych zwrotów. Te zwroty to albo wady genetyczne ,,zapisane” już w komórkach płciowych rodziców, często dziedziczone od zamierzchłych przodków, albo inne problemy. Nie oznacza to, że wady zawsze się ujawnią, bo dziecko tych samych rodziców może urodzić się zdrowe, jak i ciąża może zginąć samoistnie. Wady mogą wynikać z nieprawidłowego połączenia się komórki żeńskiej i męskiej przy zapłodnieniu (następuje w jajowodzie), albo z niesprzyjającego środowiska jamy macicy, które również może uniemożliwiać prawidłowy rozwój zarodka. To dlatego wiele ciąż jest eliminowanych samoistnie z organizmu kobiety jeszcze przed wykształceniem się łożyska (które zajmuje miejsce ciałka żółtego i tworzy się ze specjalnych komórek zwanych trofoblastami w około 12. tygodniu ciąży), albo obumiera. Kiedy tak się dzieje? Przykładowo wówczas, gdy choć rozwija się zalążek serca brakuje tętnic będących nieodzownym elementem do jego dalszego rozwoju i funkcjonowania. Kiedy zanika puls, ciąża obumiera wewnątrz macicy i jest to wskazanie do usunięcia jej z organizmu kobiety z uwagi na stan zagrożenia dla jej życia. Ciąża może obumrzeć na każdym etapie jej rozwoju. W zależności od mniejszego lub większego zaawansowania dobiera się inne metody eliminacji z organizmu (jeżeli nie zostanie wydalona samoistnie), które obejmują również sztuczne wywołanie porodu. Jeżeli jednak ciąża, pomimo wady lub wad, w tym ciężkich, nie obumrze w ciele kobiety, kobieta, zgodnie z obecnym stanem prawnym, musi dziecko urodzić. I podobnie, dziecko, mimo cierpienia musi przejść poród. Wówczas pozostaje opieka paliatywna: dba się o nawodnienie, ciepło, natlenienie, odżywienie oraz o to, aby dziecko nie odczuwało bólu.

    Ciężkie wady rozwojowe, takie jak na przykład brak łożyska lub niewykształcenie się wydolnych tętnic, mogą uniemożliwić dalszy rozwój ciąży, gdyż są jego warunkiem koniecznym. Bez krążenia, natlenienia i odżywienia nie ma mowy o kolejnych etapach ciąży. Ale wady lżejsze, które z reguły pojawiają się później i również mogą być efektem mutacji genetycznych przenoszonych międzypokoleniowo (albo świeżych mutacji) , mogą pozwalać na dalszy rozwój płodu. Nie oznacza to jednak, że przestają być wadami tzw. letalnymi, czyli śmiertelnymi, już po urodzeniu. Współczesna medycyna rozszerzyła katalog możliwych do leczenia chorób płodu zarówno w organizmie matki, jak i już po urodzeniu się dziecka. Nie wszystkie wady jednak do leczenia się nadają – zaznaczają lekarze, przyznając, że jest to problem etyczny, a nie medyczny. Przykładem mogą być wybrane wady serca. Z jednej strony część z nich można leczyć jeszcze w życiu płodowym pod warunkiem odpowiedniego zaawansowania ciąży, ale część jedynie po to, aby dziecko urodziło się żywe. Z drugiej strony, nie zawsze warto to robić z uwagi na późniejszy efekt, który w większości może pozostać mizerny. Dziecko, pomimo leczenia, i tak umiera. Te najpoważniejsze wady oczywiście nie pozwolą na rozwój ciąży w ogóle, ale przyjmuje się, że w razie urodzenia się dziecka z wadą serca, która, jeśli pozwala na rozwój płodu, jest zazwyczaj lżejsza, dzieci takie się leczy – wyjaśnia jeden z lekarzy ginekologów i położników. Neonatolog ma obowiązek ratowania wszystkich, żywo urodzonych dzieci, nawet jeśli nie mają szansy na długie przeżycie, ale szansę przeżycia mają. 

    Obecnie, dysponując odpowiednim zapleczem, można ratować życie maluszków ważących niespełna pół kilograma. W praktyce oznacza to możliwość przeżycia dzieci urodzonych w około 23 tygodniu ciąży, czasem w 22. Możliwe są również konsultacje w sytuacjach, kiedy, zazwyczaj w drugiej połowie ciąży, występują jakieś nieprawidłowości. Są też sytuacje, w których lepiej jest ciążę skrócić zarówno z perspektywy dziecka, jak i matki – przyznają niektórzy eksperciOkoło 20. tygodnia ciąży można już, za pomocą coraz bardziej szczegółowych badań prenatalnych obejmujących również jedną z najbardziej, jak dotąd, zaawansowanych technologii medycznych, jaką jest badanie rezonansu magnetycznego, wykryć ewentualne wady płodu z uwzględnieniem tych dotykających ośrodkowego układu nerwowego. Nie znaczy to, że do 20. tygodnia ujawnią się wszystkie możliwe wady ciąży. – Najwięcej z nich powstaje do 20. tygodnia ciąży, ale nie wszystkie. Te najpoważniejsze jednak już do tego czasu zazwyczaj widać – wskazują niektórzy eksperci.

    Badania prenatalne mają ocenić anatomię rozwijającego się płodu z uwzględnieniem w szczególności układu kostno-szkieletowego oraz ośrodkowego układu nerwowego i kształtującego się mózgu. Mózg to jest być, albo nie być. W przypadku wad układu kostno-szkieletowego decydujący może być stopień ciężkości takiej wady, bo może wpływać na stopień upośledzenia samej jego budowy. To z kolei może znaleźć przełożenie na objętość płuc, które osiągają dojrzałość około 36. tygodnia ciąży. Przy wadach układu kostno-szkieletowego mózg kształtuje się zazwyczaj prawidłowo – wskazują eksperci. Ale, jak wyjaśniają inni, upośledzona zostaje wydolność płuc.

    Obecnie około dwóch trzecich dzieci przedwcześnie urodzonych, nawet z zanikiem/niedostatecznym rozwojem istoty białej mózgu warunkującej prawidłowy przepływ impulsów pomiędzy neuronami, udaje się uratować. Mogą być utrzymywane przy życiu, ale ich szanse na prawidłowy rozwój pozostaną mocno ograniczone, jeżeli nie niemożliwe. Najczęstszą przyczyną niedorozwoju mózgu jest niedotlenienie. Te dotykają również w przeważającej mierze dzieci przedwcześnie urodzone. Dlatego naśladowanie warunków panujących w organizmie kobiety w inkubatorze, który poza zapewnieniem odpowiedniej temperatury umożliwia również dostarczenie do jeszcze nie w pełni rozwiniętego organizmu, w tym mózgu, tlenu, może pozwolić na uratowanie życia dziecka przedwcześnie urodzonego albo urodzonego z niską masą urodzeniową. Jednocześnie wadami letalnymi, czyli śmiertelnymi, są te dotyczące nieprawidłowości w samej budowie mózgu. Może to być brak mózgu w ogóle, nieprawidłowy podział, czyli brak wykształcenia się półkul mózgowia, czy też brak określonych struktur składających się na mózg. I te najpoważniejsze wady właściwie uniemożliwią przeżycie dziecka poza organizmem kobiety. Do katalogu można dodać jeszcze jedno zdarzenie – rozległy wylew krwi do mózgu. Z drugiej strony, negatywne skutki tego mniej rozległego można zminimalizować – wskazują niektórzy lekarze.

    Podobnie, jeżeli w czasie ciąży kobieta zmaga się z problemami psychicznymi o niezbyt dużym nasileniu, ale powinna przyjmować leki stabilizujące jej stan, a są one bezpieczne dla płodu, dziecko zazwyczaj rodzi się zdrowe. – Nie jestem w stanie ocenić zdrowia psychicznego nowo narodzonego dziecka, którego matka przyjmowała leki psychiatryczne w okresie ciąży, ale jako neonatolog mogę ocenić czy jego anatomia oraz odruchy na stymulację układu nerwowego są prawidłowe – wskazuje jeden z neonatologów – I z reguły są z zastrzeżeniem, że neonatolodzy monitorują dzieci do 3. roku życia -precyzuje.

    Do prawidłowego rozwoju dziecka niezbędne jest jeszcze środowisko, a w szczególności dotyk matki. Jeżeli matka jest poważnie chora i nie jest w stanie nawiązać więzi, jaką warunkuje dotyk, dziecko może rzeczywiście zostać umieszczone w pieczy zastępczej. Ale przesłanka ściśle psychiatryczna pozwalająca na usunięcie ciąży, gdy może zagrażać zdrowiu lub życiu kobiety, może być widziana jako kontrowersyjna. Z jednej strony psychiatrzy twierdzą, że potrafią odróżnić faktyczne groźby samobójcze od tych ,,udawanych”, z drugiej strony może to być ryzykowne.

    Tekst powstał na podstawie rozmów z ginekologami, położnikami i neonatologami oraz na bazie literatury naukowej

    Autorka urodziła się 50 lat temu z masą urodzeniową 2 kg jako noworodek płci żeńskiej

  • Energy security in the Baltic may hinge on Poland’s plans for N power

    Photo: Geopolitical map of Europe, author: Hidalgo, Pixabay

    Russia’s unprovoked invasion of Ukraine has accelerated the efforts of the Baltic states to extricate themselves from the Moscow-controlled BRELL power grid system. Despite facing synchronization issues and energy quota challenges, these nations have abandoned their ties with Russia. In this context, Poland could play a crucial role in ensuring their independence from the Putin regime if the planned nuclear power plant becomes a reality.

    The Brell power grid system was based on a 2001 agreement that focused on technical aspects of electricity transmission and operates synchronously with the US/IPS zone, which includes Russia, Belarus, and the CIS countries. Despite the collapse of communism in Russia and a political desire to join the European Union, former Soviet Union republics that exited Russian control had to secure energy flows. The power grid of these countries constitutes lines featuring voltage from 110kV to 330kV, while the regional network primarily consists of 110kV lines. Together with neighbouring electrical networks of Russia and Belarus, the electrical networks of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania form the “Baltic ring,” comprising 330 kV and 750 kV lines.

    The Russian power system provided primary power reserves needed to maintain the frequency of electricity flow in line with EU requirements. For example, Poland’s average voltage was 220 kV (currently 230 kV), which is typical for the entire EU with 50 Hz frequency of electricity flow (UCTE system’s highest voltage is also 380 kV instead of 1,150 kV top for power grids in the former Soviet Union). Thus, integration with systems of western countries like Germany, the Czech and Slovakia as well as connection with Sweden was simpler for Poland and less cost sensitive. Poland was part of the EU UCTE electricity network almost 10 years before official accession. Among the Baltic, only Estonia’s electricity supply situation is close to western standards lines with the presence of 220 kV. This has enabled integration with the Nordic grid, particularly Finland. Estonia is able to cater to peak loads and also facilitate net export of energy to Latvia and Russia — and even back to Finland in case of favourable electricity prices. Latvia has connections with Estonia and Russia, which result in considerable dependence on imports from these countries, though the country is a net exporter to Lithuania.

    Among the three Baltic states, Lithuania is most vulnerable in terms of power demand in relation to supply. This is an effect of the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant decommissioning (1500MW capacity) – a critical condition of EU accession. Ignalina produced almost 40 percent of the electricity consumed in the Baltic states. The shutdown caused a substantial power shortage in Lithuania of about 150-180 MW generation capacity during the winter peak demand in 2014 and a 130-160 MW deficit during the summer peak, according to Gianluca Fulli in the Politecnico di Torino doctorate thesis. The European Commission’s economic snapshot of Lithuania from 2023 says the country is importing around two-thirds of its electricity due to insufficient domestic power generation. The amounts are lower than in 2013, when the country had to import 70 percent of the electricity consumed, and 50 percent originated from third countries. Still, the situation leads to high energy prices and inflation. This is why Lithuania is struggling to meet the aim of increasing the generation of electricity from renewable sources to 70 percent of the total domestic consumption by 2030 and 100 percent in 2045 after a ban on a new nuclear power plant in Visaginas.

    In the meantime, in 2015, Lithuania secured 500 MW of electricity transmission capacity in both directions via a connection with Poland that was seen as a country politically willing and militarily capable of facing up to coercion, according to the Baltic States report of the International Centre for Defence and Security. Russia is well-known for using energy as a tool of pressure. Before the Ukrainian war, in 2021, Lithuania used the link with Poland for electricity exports, while substantial amounts of electricity came from a cable of 700 MW capacity connecting it with Sweden. Imports from Poland in 2021 accounted for 31 percent of Lithuania’s power imports, in line with Tomas Janeliunas’s report for the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Foundation.

    After the Ukrainian war started and the so-called rejection of Russian energy by the EU in solidarity with Kyiv, Lithuania still had a green light to import electricity from Kaliningrad. In 2021, power from this source accounted for 16 percent of Lithuanian electricity imports. The capacity of the connection allowing for import from Kaliningrad to Lithuania is 600 MW, and for exports it is 680 MW. The electricity import capacity decreased to 150 MW for Lithuania after Russian aggression against Ukraine. Yet, imports continued as per Tomas Janeliunas. Russian electricity exports have been transmitted through a part of the European electricity systems, according to a statement of The Forum for Research on Eastern Europe and Emerging Economies (Free Network). Apart from Latvia, which has one connection with Russia on the border (its import capacity has also decreased after the war in Ukraine started), Lithuania has four connecting points with Belarus, which is a part of the Brell grid. This is why, as Free Network stated in November 2022, some eight months after the war began, desynchronization from the Brell network is not currently feasible. The Baltic was still receiving Russian or Belarusian energy. Moreover, during 2023, two years after hostilities broke out, Lithuania’s electricity imports from Poland amounted to USD 106 million, while Poland’s imports from Lithuania exceeded USD 307 million, according to the UN database.

    The case for desynchronization from the Brell system by European Union members was not new. The process sped up after the Russian aggression. Technical problems, tensions between countries, and costly investments needed to join the European Union electricity network in order to fully abandon the Soviet era ties have extended the process, which is not easy to complete. The first strong signals of disconnection appeared after the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014. Before the war against Georgia, Russia was perceived as a “partner” by many countries of the EU and NATO. Crimea annexation and the ongoing war in Donbas changed the perception, and Russia is seen as a threat to Western countries. The 2018 agreement between the Baltic states and Poland — which is supporting the Brell desynchronization — aimed to reach the goal by late 2025, although it has already happened, however, with a three-year transition period. Disconnection would, though, isolate Kaliningrad, a Russian enclave with a window to the Baltic Sea, and Russia has been aware that this is a threat to its interests. The country has been playing its own games with Baltic states and the European Union (energy supply disruptions to some countries, disinformation, cyber-warfare, political and economic corruption, military threats), and at the same time, it is securing its interests in electricity supply for the region. It has been modernizing the transmission grids in Kaliningrad, equipping the region with new power generating capacities, expanding generation and transmission capacities in the North-West (Sankt Petersburg).

    In practice, as the Baltic Security and Strategy report from 2019 states, the Russian government has accepted the prospect of Brell exit. As long as the Baltic states display a strong will to get rid of the Brell network, Russia may not be able to use electricity as a tool of political and economic pressure. Moreover, among the Baltic, only Lithuania has been highly dependent on Russian electricity, as Latvia has hydroelectric power. Disconnection from the Brell system may be a problem for the European Union (particularly Finland, Sweden, and Poland) though accession of Sweden to NATO may change perceptions. Russia cut off the power supply to Finland after the war in Ukraine started and the latter declared its willingness to join NATO. On the other hand, Finland has become a part of NATO along with Sweden. Meanwhile, Russian electricity exports to Lithuania, which is also a NATO member, continued.

    In this context, Poland’s role with its planned nuclear power plant may be crucial to secure electricity for the Baltic under the condition that Lithuania and others are going to access substantial amounts of power. Before the Ukrainian war, Poland was reluctant to build a second overland interconnector to the Baltic states. The country is also blocking the opening of its domestic electricity market to competition from other EU members and limits imports from the east (Baltics) in order to protect local power production, still mainly generated from coal. But the political decision within the EU to abandon coal has been made. Poland, anyway, needs to secure its demand for energy,y which is temporarily declining due to high prices. Nuclear power is considered clean energy in what matters from the EU perspective. This is why the new nuclear power plant in Poland may get the EU green light in contrast to the past one planned in Żarnowiec, which was almost completely ready to launch the works (the political decision of the first Polish fully democratically elected government halted it). Still, energy security costs, and Poland is struggling to establish a reference price for nuclear power in the EU. That means, if the EU agrees, the domestic economy’s requirement to adjust to new conditions will remain limited, and prices, particularly in a closed market, may not surge and remain affordable. In this context, spare production might be sold outside, possibly to Baltic states and notably Lithuania, after the Brell system is disconnected. But the question of whether Russia moves against the West, as seen in Ukraine, military threats to NATO, and the recent election in the US, may help Poland’s nuclear plans as the EU recognizes the need for Warsaw and the Baltic to secure energy supplies.

     

    Author’s note: the article has been offered to the Polish Public Television TVP World in the recruitment process on February 29, 2024. Written by mid-February 2024. Paid PLN 100 (returned). 

     

     

     

  • Why are genes less similar better for studying diseases?

    Photo: Baboon, Clker-Free-Vector-Images, Pixabay

    Baboons show greater resilience to diseases despite their diverse genome, whereas humans, with singular set of chromosomes, exhibit increased susceptibility – according to a new study published in ,,Cell Genomics”. 

    Genetic variations differ in humans as a whole body or within the body in certain tissues. Genetic variation, simplifying, is the number of chromosomal sets expressed in a cell, lining up to tissue further organs. There may be haploid and diploid sets, meaning that in the first case, a single cell contains only one set of homologous chromosomes, i.e. chromosomes that are similar in their shape and size. In the other case, within the cell, a double set of chromosomes is expressed. Different individuals carry similar genetic information, but their variants can differ. These variants are known as alleles, and sometimes the first allele can be completely different from the second. This variation can occur in different regions of the genome. This is why, for example, children from the same parents may have different eye colors, or it can indicate which genes are inherited from the mother, while others may remain hidden unless they are still present.

    Now, scientists of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, USA in a recent study titled,, Genome-wide allele-specific expression in multi-tissue samples from healthy male baboons reveals the transcriptional complexity of mammals” published in ,,Cell Genomics”, prove that these tiniest alleles being two copies of the same gene or a single nucleotides that build up the structure called allele-specific expression are pivotal for the genetic underpinnings of phenotypic variation within species. What’s more than they are crucial to differences in disease susceptibility and responses to environmental factors.

    When is it more advantageous to reverse an evolutionary path?

    Unexpectedly, they (the allele-specific expression) are to a greater extent profitable for baboons, being more resilient to disease due to their higher gene diversity than for humans. Why? Astonishing paradox in line with the study is that humans may be seen as a product of evolutionary loss in the context of a number of diploid sets of chromosomes, and this is why they become more vulnerable to illnesses. But there is a good message as well. The one is that baboons’ genome, despite being just 94 percent similarity shared with humans (chimpanzee similarity accounts for approximately 98 percent), represents the best example for studying the diseases harming humans and thus their possible cure. How?

    Allele-specific expression (ASE) occurs in human genomes, similar to baboons, where roughly 70 percent of the entire protein-coding gene set is involved. These expressions contribute to specific tissues and are influenced by genotypes, which represent the complete genetic material of an organism. The genes we inherit from our ancestors can make us more or less susceptible to disease. For example, as the scientists claim in their study, previous studies have linked ASE to the risk of Crohn disease, cancer development, aging rates, susceptibility to cardiac diseases, and complex phenotypes in other outbred mammals. The fact that baboons have higher levels of coding sequence heterozygosity (higher genetic variation, i.e, two different alleles of the same gene in a selected location/loci) than do humans facilitates the identification of the number of genes that can be assessed for ASE. These factors make baboons an ideal proxy for humans in biomedical studies, write scientists. Why? Because that makes it possible to identify, let’s say, aggressive allele switching observed for instance during tumorigenesis (that leads to cancer). The difference also makes clear the distinction between healthy tissue and abnormal one. It was observed that the switching of aggressive alleles also takes place between healthy, distinct tissue types. The process is enhanced when haplotypes (with less genetic variability) are better expressed and more stable. Why? This is likely because tissue-specific genes experience stronger selection pressure. As a result, they may be more frequently associated with certain loci in genetic material that are more predictive of diseases. Therefore, in this context, unification does not provide a real advantage.

  • How do we cope with propaganda? Is it clear for most of us or not?

    Photo: Radio waves, Credit: Clker-Free-Vector-Images, Pixabay

    Does repeating a lie a hundred times make it true? Unfortunately, more often than we would like, the answer is yes. This phenomenon is a key aspect of how propaganda operates. 

    Propaganda has existed since the emergence of different organized human societies and countries. Innovations in communication tools and methods that favor the dissemination of messages favorable for those in power have expanded the reach of propaganda. In the past, it was clearer who the propagandists were and who made up the audience. Today, that distinction has become blurred. Why? Because now everyone can comment on, like, or share content on social media, according to scientists Tetsuro Kobayashi and Takashi Sakaki from Waseda University and Tokyo University, who shed light on this issue. Their study was originally published in the Chinese Journal of Communication and later featured in Taylor & Francis.

    Social media serves as a tool for broadcasting propaganda and enables its audience to engage through ‘likes’ and comments and further share content,

    claim Tetsuro Kobayashi and Takshi Sakaki of the Waseda and Tokyo University.

    In this context, the scientists write, the line between propagandists and their audience becomes unclear. Ordinary citizens and astroturfing agents in the target countries work together to interpret and spread narratives. At times, facts can assist; at other times, they can hinder, depending on the audience and the intention.

    Terryfying conclusions?

    However, this is not the major conclusion of the study. The main conclusion is that the acceptance of propaganda might be autonomous from the ideology or values shared within the society. Moreover, this does not mean a free-standing judgment of a specified narrative/message. According to scientists, the agents of propaganda on social media are currently not limited to conventional propagandists such as state-sponsored media or diplomats. Propagandists include ordinary citizens from the targeted countries who disseminate the message further to their friends and followers, frequently not realizing what they are supporting or the potential implications as such. This shift makes participatory propaganda increasingly relevant – write scientists.

    Interestingly, the study focused on how narratives propagated by China, generally perceived as an illiberal or authoritarian country, are received and disseminated on social media in an East Asian democracy: Japan. An example was the 2019 anti-government protests in Hong Kong. As scientists write, China was trying to demonstrate that the riots were instigated by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the National Endowment for Democracy (NED). The narrative was accepted and disseminated by the left and right wings within Japan’s social media space, say scientists. A survey experiment revealed that aversion to political protests in Japan led typically China-critical rightists to accept this narrative. To make it clear, as scientists claim, rightists generally maintain a strong alliance with the US while often adopting a tough stance towards China. 

  • What influences cognition? The exchange in purine bases and amino acids in the brain.

    Photo: Adenine structure, one of the purine bases, specifically connects to thymine via hydrogen bonding in DNA and uracyl in RNA, as discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick in the 50s. Credit:kropekk_pl

    Of the about 20,000 metabolites discovered so far in human blood serum, over 1,300 and 140 lipids have been observed to profile the brain’s uptake and release.

    A new study led by Chinese scientists, published in the journal ,,Neuron,” explains why the human brain, which accounts for only 2% of body weight, consumes nearly 20% of the body’s glucose and oxygen resources. In simpler terms, neuronal activity requires these fuels, along with amino acids and lipids, to develop and maintain proper functions. The scientists observed differences in the quantities of the studied substances among individuals from whom blood samples were taken for testing. However, they noted that the participants were under anesthesia during the study, which could have influenced the results. This impact is believed to affect the functioning of the brain more than the abundance of the critical compounds themselves.

    How do we use energy?

    What’s fascinating, the observed differences in byproducts between participants were seen as greater than those between the brain and leg blood ingredients, although in the case of leg blood vessels, over 1,500 compounds circulate. The differences in vessel size are likely to be clear; for instance, the femoral artery is one of the largest arteries in the human body, while the blood vessels in the brain are much smaller. Moreover, it is already established that the brain consumes glucose at a rate exceeding 10%, according to comparisons of arteriovenous glucose levels. A key method for studying tissue metabolism involves measuring the quantities of substances across different tissues. Recent advancements in metabolomics, the study of organic compounds either produced within the body or obtained from external sources, have enabled the application of arteriovenous metabolomics in selected species. This has allowed for the quantification of metabolite exchanges that are specific to different organs or tissues. As a result, this approach has provided valuable insights into how, for example, the human heart utilizes energy. Is it now time to focus on the brain?

    We observed a high net uptake of glucose, taurine, and hypoxanthine and identified glutamine and pyruvate as significantly released metabolites by the brain,

    say Yilong Wang and Woo-ping Ge of Chinese Institute for Brain Research in Beijing.

    Out of the 5,384 compounds analyzed, 738 (13.7% of all measured features) were taken up by the brain, while 627 (11.6%) were released from the brain. The remaining 74.7% of the compounds showed no significant difference in values between arterial and venous plasma samples, indicating they remained stable – write scientists.

    What is contained within neuronal tissue?

     The brain utilizes both purines and amino acid derivatives in varying amounts, along with various released byproducts. Some of these byproducts are not yet fully classified in terms of their biological properties. Nevertheless, the research suggests that at least one of these substances is absorbed at a net rate of about 26% into the brain’s structural tissue. The predictive formula for this substance, along with its structure, suggests the presence of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen forming bonds with boron, which in turn binds with sulfur. Is this essential for brain plasticity and, consequently, overall health? As the scientists claim, some compounds are absorbed or released more during youth, while others remain stable in adulthood even when their uptake occurred earlier in life. Around 50 of these compounds maintain remarkable stability during the 40s, despite having been released earlier. Additionally, no compound was found to be absorbed more by the human brain in the ≥40 age group compared to its absorption in the 20s age group. However, according to the study, with age, the brain consumes less glucose, taurine, and 3MGA, while releasing more asparagine, biliverdin, choline, trimethylamine, and caprylate. At the same time, scientists indicated the importance of the liver and its vessel’s role in absorbing substances necessary for the brain from the blood.

    ,, The arteriovenous data presented in this study were collected from human subjects who were under anesthesia and had fasted overnight to closely approximate resting state. Given this fasting condition, there is a potential increase in lipid utilization and a decrease in carbohydrate utilization. However, it is important to recognize that the effects of anesthesia and fasting on brain metabolic exchange can be unpredictable. Therefore, caution should be exercised when concluding about all metabolites,” – scientists claim. 

  • When and why might the genetic code change? Groundbreaking research addresses these questions.

    Photo: Evolved macroscopic “snowflake” yeast from the MuLTEE experiment. The large size of the nuclei (yellow) and cells (cyan) are results of whole-genome duplication and aneuploidy. Credit: Georgia Institute of Technology

    The specific chromosomal configurations and changes in their numbers may persist or disappear depending on population size and environmental conditions.

    Can we live outside of Earth while considering the impact of population size on our general condition? A recent experiment from the laboratory at the Georgia Institute of Technology, published in ,,Nature”, suggests that it may be possible. How? Through the duplication of selected parts of the genome, specifically chromosomes. This isn’t just science fiction; researchers in the U.S. have demonstrated that cells with four sets of chromosomes (tetraploids) can maintain a specific number of chromosomes that differs from the standard (aneuploidy) under the right selective conditions. Although these newly created polyploid genomes are highly unstable, there are ways for the new cells, built according to the “updated” instructions, to persist in the genome for a certain amount of time and across a limited number of generations, as seen in the snowflake yeast used in the experiment.

    There may be challenges in applying the study results to humans, as yeast has only 16 chromosomes, while humans typically have 46. However, the research indicated evolutionary pathways along with genetic mechanisms, specifically during the phases of mitosis when chromosomes condense and duplicate before being divided into a specific set within a single cell. In normal conditions, the standard chromosomal set is diploid, meaning two sets of chromosomes align at the edge of a dividing nucleus or cell during mitosis. Notably, the experiment demonstrated that under selection for larger multicellular size, yeast can rapidly evolve to become tetraploid. This means that the four sets of chromosomes evolved because they offer immediate fitness benefits, contributing to larger cell sizes and the ability to form more complex structures. However, it is important to remember that evolution not only produces new traits but also leads to the loss of others. The question then arises: When does this loss occur?

    In our experiment, we observed that certain chromosomes were consistently gained or lost in specific lineages, particularly in the anaerobic populations that evolved macroscopic size. For example, chromosomes VIII and XIV were frequently lost in strains that reverted from macroscopic to microscopic size, suggesting these specific chromosomal configurations can be selectively maintained when they provide adaptive benefits in particular environments,

    says William C. Ratcliff in a special comment for evolutionandsecurity.com.

    Chromosome VIII in yeast plays a vital role in biosynthesis, which is essential for anabolism—the process of building up the body and supporting its vital functions. Additionally, this chromosome triggers adaptive mechanisms. In humans, chromosome VIII contains approximately 700 genes that provide instructions for producing proteins crucial for developmental health, particularly for bones and the brain. This chromosome also transmits genetic information from one generation to the next and is responsible for cell replication. The deletion of chromosome XIV in humans may trigger epilepsy and other diseases associated with tubulin disruption, which is a critical structure for signaling pathways in the nervous system.

    The study results clearly demonstrate the evolutionary mechanisms that contribute to an increase in population size. However, a less optimistic aspect is that this growth may be accompanied by a rise in the number of diseases affecting humans. On the other hand, scientists believe that polyploidy, despite its instability and limitations, can be preserved through molecular mechanisms that stabilize duplicated genomes, thus enhancing adaptive traits. What’s more, they write that ,,the instability of nascent polyploid genomes may provide an evolutionary advantage under novel environments by rapidly generating genetic variation, especially via aneuploidy. This has been shown to facilitate the rapid evolution of microorganisms and cancer”.

    Yeast is are single-celled eukaryote, whereas humans are multicellular eukaryotes. Yeast can reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs through a process called budding, where mitosis creates similar cells or cells with variations in phenotype, allowing them to adapt better to their environment. Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, involves meiosis, which promotes genetic recombination, specifically among eukaryotes.

    Both processes serve essential but different evolutionary functions. Mitosis enables growth and asexual reproduction across all domains of life, while meiosis facilitates genetic recombination and sexual reproduction specifically in eukaryotes. If I were to address which might be more fundamental evolutionarily, I would suggest mitosis, as it’s universal across all cellular life and enables basic cellular proliferation. However, meiosis has been crucial for creating the genetic diversity that has allowed for the evolution of complex multicellular organisms,

    emphasizes William C. Ratcliff in a special comment for evolutionandsecurity.com.

    The scientists concluded that they demonstrated how even complex aneuploid karyotypes (the number of chromosome sets) can be maintained over thousands of generations, despite the inherent instability of the genomes. They achieved this by better tolerating the potential costs associated with reduced gene dosage effects.

  • Who will pay more and who will pay less for oil in 2025?

    Photo: Oil facility, eyeonicimages, Pixabay

    As China’s refineries’ product demand may reach its limits in 2025, the oil price for those in other locations can surge despite the foreseen global fuel surplus. Why?

    According to the International Energy Agency’s forecast for 2025, global oil demand is to increase to an average of one million barrels per day from the level of approximately 830 thousand barrels per day in 2024. This weaker demand growth is in line with the original forecast, however, the largest supply increase is to come from the US, which is already on output records. OPEC+ is also to unwind production cuts in April, which may result in cheaper oil for those who take from the Middle East.

    But the US, followed by Canada, Brasil, and Guyana, will also attempt to sell oil on the market. Shall the prices decline in this case? Not necessarily. Why? Because production costs along with transport are different. The cheapest oil extraction is in the Middle East, and this oil is the most productive one, while in the rest of the world, despite sometimes more advanced and efficient technologies, it is not so easy. So, in this case, the global surplus estimated for roughly 600 thousand barrels per day in 2025 may cost. Who will pay? The one who can afford or at least is perceived as the one who can afford.

    Economies in Asia are projected to account for nearly 60% of the increase in global oil demand this year. This growth will primarily be driven by China, where petrochemical feedstocks are expected to be the main factor behind this demand, as the need for refined fuels reaches a plateau, according to a statement from the IEA. However, this plateau cannot last indefinitely. Refineries have a limited production capacity, and until that capacity is expanded, the demand for domestically refined fuel in China is likely to decline. While this may pose a challenge for China, it simultaneously creates opportunities for other Asian countries to acquire surplus oil at favorable prices. This situation reflects the structure of China’s economy. Why?

    According to the IEA’s statement, Chinese oil demand growth is dominated by petrochemical feedstocks, which are used for plastics and fibers rather than burned as fuels. Meanwhile, shifts in China’s economy, a slump in the country’s construction sector, the expansion of high-speed rail, and strong sales of electric vehicles are limiting oil demand growth for fuels in this country. Economy structure in, for instance, European countries is different, although it is gradually changing in line with the clean energy policy.

    The structure of oil use is also changing as there is a boost in energy mix from other sources, including brand new ones. They, in common, may even prevent additional emissions, although at the same time they are boosting them in, for example, cooling demand rising due to global warming.

    The IEA emphasizes that any escalating trade tensions, whose macroeconomic effects are currently difficult to quantify, may disrupt the recent forecast.

  • Why does mitochondrial disruption cost so much?

    Photo: Mitochondrium, SkieTheAce, Pixabay

    Does evolution know the paths of the past and future? That’s possible according to new research published in ,,Cell”. How? By tracking the transport of signals and nutrients inside a cell.

    The mitochondrion is a cell organelle with a separate from the cell nucleus genetic material inherited only from a female line. The body serves as a powerhouse for cells enabling proper functioning of either specific cell lines forming organs or the whole organism. There are theories the organelle is a footprint of the origin of life and thus the tiniest and the most important proof of evolution.

    Mysterial connection with life

    How? Due to its constitution from a more primordial and prior organism which could have given the beginning of eukaryote cell shape and ingredients that all latter life contains in bodies including humans. But there is something more. Microtubules that emerged in prehistoric selected bodies and eukaryote cells are responsible for transport processes within the cell and, what is of significant importance, the code they posses is in charge of the segregation of chromosomes during cell division. Mistakes during this process called mitosis may be costly for health and threaten life of the organism. Some of them we can cure nowadays dependently on how much harm and in which location occurred. Some of them remain impossible to fix or we can only alleviate the consequences of those mistakes.

    However, according to Swizterland-based scientists, the key is the cytoskeleton, an essential step in the evolution of eukaryote cells. And these are microtubules and tubuline proteins enabling action that, among all keep the cell organelles in dedicated locations within the structure. What’s fascinating the key to ensuring the stable functioning of the entire machinery is an adequate and stable binding of adenosine-triphosphate, a chemical energy that is then absorbed by microtubules and the tubuline protein for exchange inside.

    This remarkable cytoskeleton was probably at the beginning of the development of the eukaryotic cell,

    says Jingwei Xu of the University of Zurich

    The significance of the newly published study lies in its ability to establish a foundation for future research, potentially leading to solutions for increasingly disrupted evolutionary mechanisms. How might this be achieved? One possibility is to integrate chemical and biological processes that are influenced by their underlying strengths. However, this is merely a speculative suggestion.

  • Why do women put on weight during pregnancy? Mouse example

    Photo: Sunflower, Joshrowe, Pixabay

    Why do women gain more weight during pregnancy than the size of the fetus? Because of small intestine growth apart from the growing off-spring.

    Although pregnancy is a natural stage for females and generally does not require specific treatment if both the mother and child are healthy, the bodies of many female animals, including humans, undergo significant changes during reproduction. For example, the heart shifts position upwards, while the urinary tract narrows and moves downward. Recent research from the Francis Crick Institute, published in the highest-impacted journal ,,Cell” , reveals that in mice, the small intestine may increase in length by approximately 18% by the end of pregnancy, a change similar to that seen in lactating females. Notably, this lengthening is already evident by day 7 of pregnancy in mice, according to the study’s findings.

    Natural limits of reproduction

    The entire pregnancy in mice lasts about 20 days, while women carry their babies for approximately 9 months. This difference is due to the longer development time required for human fetuses. Mice give birth to offspring that are not fully mature, which means that their young need more time and care to become independent, especially with their lifespan. In line with many studies, as scientists write in their paper, the intestine is a remarkably plastic organ: its epithelium is the fastest self-renewing tissue in mammals. In the small intestine, proliferating cells located within crypts give rise to cells that migrate upward into the villus and differentiate. It is a superficial paradox that slimmer women tend to get pregnant more easily than those with higher fat tissue. However, fat does impact fertility and thus the potential for conception.

    The reproductive growth of the maternal intestine and other organs was suggested nearly 100 years ago and has since been shown to involve increases in intestinal length and absorptive area,

    claim Irene Miguel-Aliaga and Tomotsune Ameku of The Francis Crick Institute.

    What does it mean? Although the specific mechanisms underlying the process are not in-depth known, yet, reasons may include nutrients and microbiota. The latter ones are changing along with changes in the environment living organisms share and consume. And all of this brings consequences for reproduction action.

    Is pregnancy evolving into a more energy-dense process?

    Pregnancy is an effort for the female organism. Yet, previous studies have shown that remodeling of the maternal intestine is not confined to mammals. For example, as scientists write, the intestine of oviparous Drosophila fruit flies, which differs between males and females, grows and is metabolically remodeled in females during reproduction. What’s interesting, is that intestinal growth is anticipatory and genetically-controlled. In general, the gut tract’s work and shape are driven by specific hormones that play crucial roles in the digestive process as well as preserving the functions of the cells responding to a protein trigger obtained during millions of years of evolution. However, this does not imply some pieces remain completely stiff. Scientists observed accelerated migration of the enterocyte progeny up the villus in early pregnancy and, particularly, lactation. What’s new is that the researchers stated that the first pregnancy enables full reversibility of anatomical changes induced with pregnancy, while the subsequent ones make the process more difficult. Why? As scientists claim, villi grow during pregnancy by increasing the proliferation of their progenitors and the migration and size of differentiated epithelial cells.

    Consistent with the dynamics of villus growth/shrinkage, these reproductive changes in epithelial cell dynamics are already apparent in early pregnancy, peak at the end of pregnancy, persist in lactation, and yet are fully and rapidly reversible post-lactation,

    say Tomotsune Ameku and Irene Miguel-Aliaga of The Francis Crick Institute.

    Experiments indicate that the remodeling of the villus is specific to reproductive status. According to scientists, the height, width, and depth of the villus—which is responsible for absorbing nutrients and eliminating unnecessary or harmful food components—return to their pre-pregnancy values. Notably, the height of the villus remains similar between the first and second pregnancies, in contrast to changes observed in gut elongation.

  • Who is in Jamaica discussing the future of deep-sea minerals?

    Photo: Sea turtle, Andresfho, Pixabay

    The UN’s ISA started talks on sharing deep sea minerals in the Pacific, which might be as crucial as danger for humans and green transformation.

    The International Seabed Authority (ISA) was established in 1982 under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. This agreement has been signed by nearly 170 countries and the European Union. According to the legal provisions, the ISA has a dual mission: to authorize and regulate mineral-related operations in the international seabed, which is regarded as the “common heritage of mankind.” The ISA is responsible for overseeing any exploration or mining of essential resources, such as cobalt, nickel, and manganese, in international waters, while also protecting the marine environment.

    Why are seabed resources so important?

    Polymetallic nodules are considered critical for life, as manganese may have played a significant role in the formation of ribonucleic acids (RNA), which are present in every living organism on Earth. However, the approval for mining these resources comes with conditions. According to Agence France Presse, any organization seeking a contract to mine the ocean floor must be sponsored by a specific country.

    Minerals play a vital role in the engines of electric vehicles, significantly helping to reduce harmful emissions in the atmosphere. Some estimates suggest that polymetallic nodules, which contain essential metals for electric vehicle batteries and are located offshore, could lead to a 90 percent reduction in CO2 emissions compared to the extraction of ores from land.

    What is on the table? 

    The negotiations to begin discussions on the future of the sea floor took about 10 years. Some activists, concerned about protecting hard-to-reach ocean ecosystems, find it nonsensical that there is a mandate to start talks on a framework for using seabed resources.

    According to resource law, each entity that obtains a concession to extract minerals owned by all of humanity is required to pay royalties to the International Seabed Authority (ISA). However, there is currently no consensus among member states regarding the appropriate royalty fee. The values of the metals and the costs for countries to utilize them remain unclear, leading to varying demands from interested parties. 

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marta.koblanska@evolutionandsecurity.com, evolutionisecurity@proton.me

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